BOOK II ON THE THEORY OF WAR（1）

　　CHAPTER2ONTHETHEORYOFWAR

　　1.THEFIRSTCONCEPTIONOFTHE"ARTOFWAR"WASMERELYTHEPREPARATIONOFTHEARMEDFORCES

　　FORMERLYbytheterm"ArtofWar,"or"ScienceofWar,"nothingwasunderstoodbutthetotalityofthose

　　anchesofknowledgeandthoseappliancesofskilloccupiedwithmaterialthings.Thepatternandpreparationandthemodeofusingarms,theconstructionoffortificationsandentrenchments,theorganismofanarmyandthemechanismofitsmovements,werethesubject;these

　　anchesofknowledgeandskillabovereferredto,andtheendandaimofthemallwastheestablishmentofanarmedforcefitforuseinWar.Allthisconcernedmerelythingsbelongingtothematerialworldandaone-sidedactivityonly,anditwasinfactnothingbutanactivityadvancingbygradationsfromtheloweroccupationstoafinerkindofmechanicalart.TherelationofallthistoWaritselfwasverymuchthesameastherelationoftheartoftheswordcutlertotheartofusingthesword.Theemploymentinthemomentofdangerandinastateofconstantreciprocalactionoftheparticularenergiesofmindandspiritinthedirectionproposedtothemwasnotyetevenmooted.

　　2.TRUEWARFIRSTAPPEARSINTHEARTOFSIEGES

　　Intheartofsiegeswefirstperceiveacertaindegreeofguidanceofthecombat,somethingoftheactionoftheintellectualfacultiesuponthematerialforcesplacedundertheircontrol,butgenerallyonlysofarthatitverysoonembodieditselfagaininnewmaterialforms,suchasapproaches,trenches,counterapproaches,batteries,&c.,andeverystepwhichthisactionofthehigherfacultiestookwasmarkedbysomesuchresult;itwasonlythethreadthatwasrequiredonwhichtostringthesematerialinventionsinorder.AstheintellectcanhardlymanifestitselfinthiskindofWar,exceptinsuchthings,sothereforenearlyallthatwasnecessarywasdoneinthatway.

　　3.THENTACTICSTRIEDTOFINDITSWAYINTHESAMEDIRECTION

　　Afterwardstacticsattemptedtogivetothemechanismofitsjointsthecharacterofageneraldisposition,builtuponthepeculiarpropertiesoftheinstrument,whichcharacterleadsindeedtothebattlefield,butinsteadofleadingtothefreeactivityofmind,leadstoanArmymadelikeanautomatonbyitsrigidformationsandordersofbattle,which,movableonlybythewordofcommand,isintendedtounwinditsactivitieslikeapieceofclockwork.

　　4.THEREALCONDUCTOFWARONLYMADEITSAPPEARANCEINCIDENTALLYANDINCOGNITO

　　TheconductofWarproperlysocalled,thatis,auseofthepreparedmeansadaptedtothemostspecialrequirements,wasnotconsideredasanysuitablesubjectfortheory,butonewhichshouldbelefttonaturaltalentsalone.Bydegrees,asWarpassedfromthehand-to-handencountersofthemiddleagesintoamoreregularandsystematicform,strayreflectionsonthispointalsoforcedthemselvesintomen'sminds,buttheymostlyappearedonlyincidentallyinmemoirsandnarratives,andinacertainmeasureincognito.

　　5.REFLECTIONSONMILITARYEVENTS

　　OUGHTABOUTTHEWANTOFATHEORY

　　AscontemplationonWarcontinuallyincreased,anditshistoryeverydayassumedmoreofacriticalcharacter,theurgentwantappearedofthesupportoffixedmaximsandrules,inorderthatinthecontroversiesnaturallyarisingaboutmilitaryeventsthewarofopinionsmightbe

　　oughttosomeonepoint.Thiswhirlofopinions,whichneitherrevolvedonanycentralpivotnoraccordingtoanyappreciablelaws,couldnotbutbeverydistastefultopeople'sminds.

　　6.ENDEAVOURSTOESTABLISHAPOSITIVETHEORY

　　Therearose,therefore,anendeavourtoestablishmaxims,rules,andevensystemsfortheconductofWar.Bythistheattainmentofapositiveobjectwasproposed,withouttakingintoviewtheendlessdifficultieswhichtheconductofWarpresentsinthatrespect.TheconductofWar,aswehaveshown,hasnodefinitelimitsinanydirection,whileeverysystemhasthecircumscribingnatureofasynthesis,fromwhichresultsanirreconcileableoppositionbetweensuchatheoryandpractice.

　　7.LIMITATIONTOMATERIALOBJECTS

　　Writersontheoryfeltthedifficultyofthesubjectsoonenough,andthoughtthemselvesentitledtogetridofitbydirectingtheirmaximsandsystemsonlyuponmaterialthingsandaone-sidedactivity.Theiraimwastoreachresults,asinthescienceforthepreparationforWar,entirelycertainandpositive,andthereforeonlytotakeintoconsiderationthatwhichcouldbemadematterofcalculation.

　　8.SUPERIORITYOFNUMBERS

　　Thesuperiorityinnumbersbeingamaterialcondition,itwaschosenfromamongstallthefactorsrequiredtoproducevictory,becauseitcouldbe

　　oughtundermathematicallawsthroughcombinationsoftimeandspace.Itwasthoughtpossibletoleaveoutofsightallothercircumstances,bysupposingthemtobeequaloneachside,andthereforetoneutraliseoneanother.Thiswouldhavebeenverywellifithadbeendonetogainapreliminaryknowledgeofthisonefactor,accordingtoitsrelations,buttomakeitaruleforevertoconsidersuperiorityofnumbersasthesolelaw;toseethewholesecretoftheArtofWarintheformula,INACERTAINTIME,ATACERTAINPOINT,TO

　　INGUPSUPERIORMASSES—wasarestrictionoverruledbytheforceofrealities.

　　9.VICTUALLINGOFTROOPS

　　Byonetheoreticalschoolanattemptwasmadetosystematiseanothermaterialelementalso,bymakingthesubsistenceoftroops,accordingtoapreviouslyestablishedorganismoftheArmy,thesupremelegislatorinthehigherconductofWar.Inthiswaycertainlytheyarrivedatdefinitefigures,butatfigureswhichrestedonanumberofarbitrarycalculations,andwhichthereforecouldnotstandthetestofpracticalapplication.

　　10.BASE

　　Aningeniousauthortriedtoconcentrateinasingleconception,thatofaBASE,awholehostofobjectsamongstwhichsundryrelationsevenwithimmaterialforcesfoundtheirwayinaswell.Thelistcomprisedthesubsistenceofthetroops,thekeepingthemcompleteinnumbersandequipment,thesecurityofcommunicationswiththehomecountry,lastly,thesecurityofretreatincaseitbecamenecessary;and,firstofall,heproposedtosubstitutethisconceptionofabaseforallthesethings;thenforthebaseitselftosubstituteitsownlength(extent);and,lastofall,tosubstitutetheangleformedbythearmywiththisbase:allthiswasdonetoobtainapuregeometricalresultutterlyuseless.Thislastis,infact,unavoidable,ifwereflectthatnoneofthesesubstitutionscouldbemadewithoutviolatingtruthandleavingoutsomeofthethingscontainedintheoriginalconception.Theideaofabaseisarealnecessityforstrategy,andtohaveconceiveditismeritorious;buttomakesuchauseofitaswehavedepictediscompletelyinadmissible,andcouldnotbutleadtopartialconclusionswhichhaveforcedthesetheoristsintoadirectionopposedtocommonsense,namely,toabeliefinthedecisiveeffectoftheenvelopingformofattack.

　　11.INTERIORLINES

　　Asareactionagainstthisfalsedirection,anothergeometricalprinciple,thatoftheso-calledinteriorlines,wasthenelevatedtothethrone.Althoughthisprinciplerestsonasoundfoundation,onthetruththatthecombatistheonlyeffectualmeansinWar,stillitis,justonaccountofitspurelygeometricalnature,nothingbutanothercaseofone-sidedtheorywhichcannevergainascendencyintherealworld.

　　12.ALLTHESEATTEMPTSAREOPENTOOBJECTION

　　Alltheseattemptsattheoryareonlytobeconsideredintheiranalyticalpartasprogressintheprovinceoftruth,butintheirsyntheticalpart,intheirpreceptsandrules,theyarequiteunserviceable.

　　Theystriveafterdeterminatequantities,whilstinWarallisundetermined,andthecalculationhasalwaystobemadewithvaryingquantities.

　　Theydirecttheattentiononlyuponmaterialforces,whilethewholemilitaryactionispenetratedthroughoutbyintelligentforcesandtheireffects.

　　Theyonlypayregardtoactivityononeside,whilstWarisaconstantstateofreciprocalaction,theeffectsofwhicharemutual.

　　13.ASARULETHEYEXCLUDEGENIUS

　　Allthatwasnotattainablebysuchmiserablephilosophy,theoffspringofpartialviews,layoutsidetheprecinctsofscience—andwasthefieldofgenius,whichRAISESITSELFABOVERULES.

　　Pitythewarriorwhoiscontentedtocrawlaboutinthisbeggardomofrules,whicharetoobadforgenius,overwhichitcansetitselfsuperior,overwhichitcanperchancemakemerry!Whatgeniusdoesmustbethebestofallrules,andtheorycannotdobetterthantoshowhowandwhyitisso.

　　Pitythetheorywhichsetsitselfinoppositiontothemind!Itcannotrepairthiscontradictionbyanyhumility,andthehumbleritissomuchthesoonerwillridiculeandcontemptdriveitoutofreallife.

　　14.THEDIFFICULTYOFTHEORYASSOONASMORALQUANTITIESCOMEINTOCONSIDERATIONEverytheorybecomesinfinitelymoredifficultfromthemomentthatittouchesontheprovinceofmoralquantities.Architectureandpaintingknowquitewellwhattheyareaboutaslongastheyhaveonlytodowithmatter;thereisnodisputeaboutmechanicaloropticalconstruction.Butassoonasthemoralactivitiesbegintheirwork,assoonasmoralimpressionsandfeelingsareproduced,thewholesetofrulesdissolvesintovagueideas.

　　Thescienceofmedicineischieflyengagedwithbodilyphenomenaonly;itsbusinessiswiththeanimalorganism,which,liabletoperpetualchange,isneverexactlythesamefortwomoments.Thismakesitspracticeverydifficult,andplacesthejudgmentofthephysicianabovehisscience;buthowmuchmoredifficultisthecaseifamoraleffectisadded,andhowmuchhighermustweplacethephysicianofthemind?

　　15.THEMORALQUANTITIESMUSTNOTBEEXCLUDEDINWAR

　　ButnowtheactivityinWarisneverdirectedsolelyagainstmatter;itisalwaysatthesametimedirectedagainsttheintelligentforcewhichgiveslifetothismatter,andtoseparatethetwofromeachotherisimpossible.

　　Buttheintelligentforcesareonlyvisibletotheinnereye,andthisisdifferentineachperson,andoftendifferentinthesamepersonatdifferenttimes.

　　AsdangeristhegeneralelementinwhicheverythingmovesinWar,itisalsochieflybycourage,thefeelingofone'sownpower,thatthejudgmentisdifferentlyinfluenced.Itistoacertainextentthecrystallinelensthroughwhichallappearancespassbeforereachingtheunderstanding.

　　Andyetwecannotdoubtthatthesethingsacquireacertainobjectivevaluesimplythroughexperience.

　　Everyoneknowsthemoraleffectofasurprise,ofanattackinflankorrear.Everyonethinkslessoftheenemy'scourageassoonasheturnshisback,andventuresmuchmoreinpursuitthanwhenpursued.Everyonejudgesoftheenemy'sGeneralbyhisreputedtalents,byhisageandexperience,andshapeshiscourseaccordingly.Everyonecastsascrutinisingglanceatthespiritandfeelingofhisownandtheenemy'stroops.Alltheseandsimilareffectsintheprovinceofthemoralnatureofmanhaveestablishedthemselvesbyexperience,areperpetuallyrecurring,andthereforewarrantourreckoningthemasrealquantitiesoftheirkind.Whatcouldwedowithanytheorywhichshouldleavethemoutofconsideration?

　　Certainlyexperienceisanindispensabletitleforthesetruths.Withpsychologicalandphilosophicalsophistriesnotheory,noGeneral,shouldmeddle.

　　16.PRINCIPALDIFFICULTYOFATHEORYFORTHECONDUCTOFWAR

　　InordertocomprehendclearlythedifficultyofthepropositionwhichiscontainedinatheoryfortheconductofWar,andthencetodeducethenecessarycharacteristicsofsuchatheory,wemusttakeacloserviewofthechiefparticularswhichmakeupthenatureofactivityinWar.

　　17.FIRSTSPECIALITY.—MORALFORCESANDTHEIREFFECTS(HOSTILEFEELING.)

　　Thefirstofthesespecialitiesconsistsinthemoralforcesandeffects.

　　Thecombatis,initsorigin,theexpressionofHOSTILEFEELING,butinourgreatcombats,whichwecallWars,thehostilefeelingfrequentlyresolvesitselfintomerelyahostileVIEW,andthereisusuallynoinnatehostilefeelingresidinginindividualagainstindividual.Nevertheless,thecombatneverpassesoffwithoutsuchfeelingsbeing

　　oughtintoactivity.Nationalhatred,whichisseldomwantinginourWars,isasubstituteforpersonalhostilityinthe

　　eastofindividualopposedtoindividual.Butwherethisalsoiswanting,andatfirstnoanimosityoffeelingsubsists,ahostilefeelingiskindledbythecombatitself;foranactofviolencewhichanyonecommitsuponusbyorderofhissuperior,willexciteinusadesiretoretaliateandberevengedonhim,soonerthanonthesuperiorpoweratwhosecommandtheactwasdone.Thisishuman,oranimalifwewill;stillitisso.Weareveryapttoregardthecombatintheoryasanabstracttrialofstrength,withoutanyparticipationonthepartofthefeelings,andthatisoneofthethousanderrorswhichtheoristsdeliberatelycommit,becausetheydonotseeitsconsequences.

　　Besidesthatexcitationoffeelingsnaturallyarisingfromthecombatitself,thereareothersalsowhichdonotessentiallybelongtoit,butwhich,onaccountoftheirrelationship,easilyunitewithit—ambition,loveofpower,enthusiasmofeverykind,&c.&c.

　　18.THEIMPRESSIONSOFDANGER(COURAGE.)

　　Finally,thecombatbegetstheelementofdanger,inwhichalltheactivitiesofWarmustliveandmove,likethebirdintheairorthefishinthewater.Buttheinfluencesofdangerallpassintothefeelings,eitherdirectly—thatis,instinctively—orthroughthemediumoftheunderstanding.Theeffectinthefirstcasewouldbeadesiretoescapefromthedanger,and,ifthatcannotbedone,frightandanxiety.Ifthiseffectdoesnottakeplace,thenitisCOURAGE,whichisacounterpoisetothatinstinct.Courageis,however,bynomeansanactoftheunderstanding,butlikewiseafeeling,likefear;thelatterlookstothephysicalpreservation,couragetothemoralpreservation.Courage,then,isanoblerinstinct.Butbecauseitisso,itwillnotallowitselftobeusedasalifelessinstrument,whichproducesitseffectsexactlyaccordingtoprescribedmeasure.Courageisthereforenomerecounterpoisetodangerinordertoneutralisethelatterinitseffects,butapeculiarpowerinitself.

　　19.EXTENTOFTHEINFLUENCEOFDANGER

　　ButtoestimateexactlytheinfluenceofdangerupontheprincipalactorsinWar,wemustnotlimititsspheretothephysicaldangerofthemoment.Itdominatesovertheactor,notonlybythreateninghim,butalsobythreateningallentrustedtohim,notonlyatthemomentinwhichitisactuallypresent,butalsothroughtheimaginationatallothermoments,whichhaveaconnectionwiththepresent;lastly,notonlydirectlybyitself,butalsoindirectlybytheresponsibilitywhichmakesitbearwithtenfoldweightonthemindofthechiefactor.Whocouldadvise,orresolveuponagreatbattle,withoutfeelinghismindmoreorlesswroughtup,orperplexedby,thedangerandresponsibilitywhichsuchagreatactofdecisioncarriesinitself?WemaysaythatactioninWar,insofarasitisrealaction,notamerecondition,isneveroutofthesphereofdanger.

　　20.OTHERPOWERSOFFEELING

　　IfwelookupontheseaffectionswhichareexcitedbyhostilityanddangeraspeculiarlybelongingtoWar,wedonot,therefore,excludefromitallothersaccompanyingmaninhislife'sjourney.Theywillalsofindroomherefrequentlyenough.Certainlywemaysaythatmanyapettyactionofthepassionsissilencedinthisseriousbusinessoflife;butthatholdsgoodonlyinrespecttothoseactinginalowersphere,who,hurriedonfromonestateofdangerandexertiontoanother,losesightoftherestofthethingsoflife,BECOMEUNUSEDTODECEIT,becauseitisofnoavailwithdeath,andsoattaintothatsoldierlysimplicityofcharacterwhichhasalwaysbeenthebestrepresentativeofthemilitaryprofession.Inhigherregionsitisotherwise,forthehigheraman'srank,themorehemustlookaroundhim;thenariseinterestsoneveryside,andamanifoldactivityofthepassionsofgoodandbad.Envyandgenerosity,prideandhumility,fiercenessandtenderness,allmayappearasactivepowersinthisgreatdrama.

　　21.PECULIARITYOFMIND

　　Thepeculiarcharacteristicsofmindinthechiefactorhave,aswellasthoseofthefeelings,ahighimportance.Fromanimaginative,flighty,inexperiencedhead,andfromacalm,sagaciousunderstanding,differentthingsaretobeexpected.

　　22.FROMTHEDIVERSITYINMENTALINDIVIDUALITIESARISESTHEDIVERSITYOFWAYSLEADINGTOTHEEND

　　Itisthisgreatdiversityinmentalindividuality,theinfluenceofwhichistobesupposedaschieflyfeltinthehigherranks,becauseitincreasesasweprogressupwards,whichchieflyproducesthediversityofwaysleadingtotheendnoticedbyusinthefirstbook,andwhichgives,totheplayofprobabilitiesandchance,suchanunequalshareindeterminingthecourseofevents.

　　23.SECONDPECULIARITY.—LIVINGREACTION

　　ThesecondpeculiarityinWaristhelivingreaction,andthereciprocalactionresultingtherefrom.Wedonotherespeakofthedifficultyofestimatingthatreaction,forthatisincludedinthedifficultybeforementioned,oftreatingthemoralpowersasquantities;butofthis,thatreciprocalaction,byitsnature,opposesanythinglikearegularplan.Theeffectwhichanymeasureproducesupontheenemyisthemostdistinctofallthedatawhichactionaffords;buteverytheorymustkeeptoclasses(orgroups)ofphenomena,andcannevertakeupthereallyindividualcaseinitself:thatmusteverywherebelefttojudgmentandtalent.ItisthereforenaturalthatinabusinesssuchasWar,whichinitsplan—builtupongeneralcircumstances—issooftenthwartedbyunexpectedandsingularaccidents,moremustgenerallybelefttotalent;andlessusecanbemadeofaTHEORETICALGUIDEthaninanyother.

　　24.THIRDPECULIARITY.—UNCERTAINTYOFALLDATA

　　Lastly,thegreatuncertaintyofalldatainWarisapeculiardifficulty,becauseallactionmust,toacertainextent,beplannedinameretwilight,whichinadditionnotunfrequently—liketheeffectofafogormoonshine—givestothingsexaggerateddimensionsandanunnaturalappearance.

　　Whatthisfeeblelightleavesindistincttothesighttalentmustdiscover,ormustbelefttochance.Itisthereforeagaintalent,orthefavouroffortune,onwhichreliancemustbeplaced,forwantofobjectiveknowledge.

　　25.POSITIVETHEORYISIMPOSSIBLE

　　WithmaterialsofthiskindwecanonlysaytoourselvesthatitisasheerimpossibilitytoconstructfortheArtofWaratheorywhich,likeascaffolding,shallensuretothechiefactoranexternalsupportonallsides.Inallthosecasesinwhichheisthrownuponhistalenthewouldfindhimselfawayfromthisscaffoldingoftheoryandinoppositiontoit,and,howevermany-sideditmightbeframed,thesameresultwouldensueofwhichwespokewhenwesaidthattalentandgeniusactbeyondthelaw,andtheoryisinoppositiontoreality.

　　26.MEANSLEFTBYWHICHATHEORYISPOSSIBLE(THEDIFFICULTIESARENOTEVERYWHEREEQUALLYGREAT)

　　Twomeanspresentthemselvesofgettingoutofthisdifficulty.Inthefirstplace,whatwehavesaidofthenatureofmilitaryactioningeneraldoesnotapplyinthesamemannertotheactionofeveryone,whatevermaybehisstanding.Inthelowerranksthespiritofself-sacrificeiscalledmoreintorequest,butthedifficultieswhichtheunderstandingandjudgmentmeetwithareinfinitelyless.Thefieldofoccurrencesismoreconfined.Endsandmeansarefewerinnumber.Datamoredistinct;mostlyalsocontainedintheactuallyvisible.Butthehigherweascendthemorethedifficultiesincrease,untilintheCommander-in-Chieftheyreachtheirclimax,sothatwithhimalmosteverythingmustbelefttogenius.

　　Further,accordingtoadivisionofthesubjectinAGREEMENTWITHITSNATURE,thedifficultiesarenoteverywherethesame,butdiminishthemoreresultsmanifestthemselvesinthematerialworld,andincreasethemoretheypassintothemoral,andbecomemotiveswhichinfluencethewill.Thereforeitiseasiertodetermine,bytheoreticalrules,theorderandconductofabattle,thantheusetobemadeofthebattleitself.Yonderphysicalweaponsclashwitheachother,andalthoughmindisnotwantingtherein,mattermusthaveitsrights.Butintheeffectstobeproducedbybattleswhenthematerialresultsbecomemotives,wehaveonlytodowiththemoralnature.Inaword,itiseasiertomakeatheoryforTACTICSthanforSTRATEGY.

　　27.THEORYMUSTBEOFTHENATUREOFOBSERVATIONSNOTOFDOCTRINE

　　ThesecondopeningforthepossibilityofatheoryliesinthepointofviewthatitdoesnotnecessarilyrequiretobeaDIRECTIONforaction.Asageneralrule,wheneveranACTIVITYisforthemostpartoccupiedwiththesameobjectsoverandoveragain,withthesameendsandmeans,althoughtheremaybetriflingalterationsandacorrespondingnumberofvarietiesofcombination,suchthingsarecapableofbecomingasubjectofstudyforthereasoningfaculties.ButsuchstudyisjustthemostessentialpartofeveryTHEORY,andhasapeculiartitletothatname.Itisananalyticalinvestigationofthesubjectthatleadstoanexactknowledge;andif

　　oughttobearontheresultsofexperience,whichinourcasewouldbemilitaryhistory,toathoroughfamiliaritywithit.Thenearertheoryattainsthelatterobject,somuchthemoreitpassesoverfromtheobjectiveformofknowledgeintothesubjectiveoneofskillinaction;andsomuchthemore,therefore,itwillproveitselfeffectivewhencircumstancesallowofnootherdecisionbutthatofpersonaltalents;itwillshowitseffectsinthattalentitself.IftheoryinvestigatesthesubjectswhichconstituteWar;ifitseparatesmoredistinctlythatwhichatfirstsightseemsamalgamated;ifitexplainsfullythepropertiesofthemeans;ifitshowstheirprobableeffects;ifitmakesevidentthenatureofobjects;ifit

　　ingstobearalloverthefieldofWarthelightofessentiallycriticalinvestigation—thenithasfulfilledthechiefdutiesofitsprovince.ItbecomesthenaguidetohimwhowishestomakehimselfacquaintedwithWarfrombooks;itlightsupthewholeroadforhim,facilitateshisprogress,educateshisjudgment,andshieldshimfromerror.

　　Ifamanofexpertnessspendshalfhislifeintheendeavourtoclearupanobscuresubjectthoroughly,hewillprobablyknowmoreaboutitthanapersonwhoseekstomasteritinashorttime.Theoryisinstitutedthateachpersoninsuccessionmaynothavetogothroughthesamelabourofclearingthegroundandtoilingthroughhissubject,butmayfindthethinginorder,andlightadmittedonit.ItshouldeducatethemindofthefutureleaderinWar,orratherguidehiminhisself-instruction,butnotaccompanyhimtothefieldofbattle;justasasensibletutorformsandenlightenstheopeningmindofayouthwithout,therefore,keepinghiminleadingstringsallthroughhislife.

　　Ifmaximsandrulesresultofthemselvesfromtheconsiderationswhichtheoryinstitutes,ifthetruthaccretesitselfintothatformofcrystal,thentheorywillnotopposethisnaturallawofthemind;itwillrather,ifthearchendsinsuchakeystone,

　　ingitprominentlyout;butsodoesthis,onlyinordertosatisfythephilosophicallawofreason,inordertoshowdistinctlythepointtowhichthelinesallconverge,notinordertoformoutofitanalge

　　aicalformulaforuseuponthebattle-field;foreventhesemaximsandrulesservemoretodetermineinthereflectingmindtheleadingoutlineofitshabitualmovementsthanaslandmarksindicatingtoitthewayintheactofexecution.

　　28.BYTHISPOINTOFVIEWTHEORYBECOMESPOSSIBLE,ANDCEASESTOBEINCONTRADICTIONTOPRACTICE

　　Takingthispointofview,thereisapossibilityaffordedofasatisfactory,thatis,ofauseful,theoryoftheconductofWar,nevercomingintooppositionwiththereality,anditwillonlydependonrationaltreatmentto

　　ingitsofarintoharmonywithactionthatbetweentheoryandpracticethereshallnolongerbethatabsurddifferencewhichanunreasonabletheory,indefianceofcommonsense,hasoftenproduced,butwhich,justasoften,narrow-mindednessandignorancehaveusedasapretextforgivingwaytotheirnaturalincapacity.

　　29.THEORYTHEREFORECONSIDERSTHENATUREOFENDSANDMEANS—ENDSANDMEANSINTACTICS

　　Theoryhasthereforetoconsiderthenatureofthemeansandends.

　　Intacticsthemeansarethedisciplinedarmedforceswhicharetocarryonthecontest.Theobjectisvictory.Theprecisedefinitionofthisconceptioncanbebetterexplainedhereafterintheconsiderationofthecombat.Herewecontentourselvesbydenotingtheretirementoftheenemyfromthefieldofbattleasthesignofvictory.Bymeansofthisvictorystrategygainstheobjectforwhichitappointedthecombat,andwhichconstitutesitsspecialsignification.Thissignificationhascertainlysomeinfluenceonthenatureofthevictory.Avictorywhichisintendedtoweakentheenemy'sarmedforcesisadifferentthingfromonewhichisdesignedonlytoputusinpossessionofaposition.Thesignificationofacombatmaythereforehaveasensibleinfluenceonthepreparationandconductofit,consequentlywillbealsoasubjectofconsiderationintactics.

　　30.CIRCUMSTANCESWHICHALWAYSATTENDTHEAPPLICATIONOFTHEMEANS

　　Astherearecertaincircumstanceswhichattendthecombatthroughout,andhavemoreorlessinfluenceuponitsresult,thereforethesemustbetakenintoconsiderationintheapplicationofthearmedforces.

　　Thesecircumstancesarethelocalityofthecombat(ground),thetimeofday,andtheweather.

　　31.LOCALITY

　　Thelocality,whichwepreferleavingforsolution,undertheheadof"CountryandGround,"might,strictlyspeaking,bewithoutanyinfluenceatallifthecombattookplaceonacompletelylevelanduncultivatedplain.

　　Inacountryofsteppessuchacasemayoccur,butinthecultivatedcountriesofEuropeitisalmostanimaginaryidea.Thereforeacombatbetweencivilisednations,inwhichcountryandgroundhavenoinfluence,ishardlyconceivable.

　　32.TIMEOFDAY

　　Thetimeofdayinfluencesthecombatbythedifferencebetweendayandnight;buttheinfluencenaturallyextendsfurtherthanmerelytothelimitsofthesedivisions,aseverycombathasacertainduration,andgreatbattleslastforseveralhours.Inthepreparationsforagreatbattle,itmakesanessentialdifferencewhetheritbeginsinthemorningortheevening.Atthesametime,certainlymanybattlesmaybefoughtinwhichthequestionofthetimeofdayisquiteimmaterial,andinthegeneralityofcasesitsinfluenceisonlytrifling.

　　33.WEATHER

　　Stillmorerarelyhastheweatheranydecisiveinfluence,anditismostlyonlybyfogsthatitplaysapart.

　　34.ENDANDMEANSINSTRATEGY

　　Strategyhasinthefirstinstanceonlythevictory,thatis,thetacticalresult,asameanstoitsobject,andultimatelythosethingswhichleaddirectlytopeace.Theapplicationofitsmeanstothisobjectisatthesametimeattendedbycircumstanceswhichhaveaninfluencethereonmoreorless.

　　35.CIRCUMSTANCESWHICHATTENDTHEAPPLICATIONOFTHEMEANSOFSTRATEGY

　　Thesecircumstancesarecountryandground,theformerincludingtheterritoryandinhabitantsofthewholetheatreofwar;nextthetimeoftheday,andthetimeoftheyearaswell;lastly,theweather,particularlyanyunusualstateofthesame,severefrost,&c.

　　36.THESEFORMNEWMEANS

　　By

　　ingingthesethingsintocombinationwiththeresultsofacombat,strategygivesthisresult—andthereforethecombat—aspecialsignification,placesbeforeitaparticularobject.Butwhenthisobjectisnotthatwhichleadsdirectlytopeace,thereforeasubordinateone,itisonlytobelookeduponasameans;andthereforeinstrategywemaylookupontheresultsofcombatsorvictories,inalltheirdifferentsignifications,asmeans.Theconquestofapositionissucharesultofacombatappliedtoground.Butnotonlyarethedifferentcombatswithspecialobjectstobeconsideredasmeans,butalsoeveryhigheraimwhichwemayhaveinviewinthecombinationofbattlesdirectedonacommonobjectistoberegardedasameans.Awintercampaignisacombinationofthiskindappliedtotheseason.

　　Thereremain,therefore,asobjects,onlythosethingswhichmaybesupposedasleadingDIRECTLYtopeace,Theoryinvestigatesalltheseendsandmeansaccordingtothenatureoftheireffectsandtheirmutualrelations.

　　37.STRATEGYDEDUCESONLYFROMEXPERIENCETHEENDSANDMEANSTOBEEXAMINED

　　Thefirstquestionis,Howdoesstrategyarriveatacompletelistofthesethings?Ifthereistobeaphilosophicalinquiryleadingtoanabsoluteresult,itwouldbecomeentangledinallthosedifficultieswhichthelogicalnecessityoftheconductofWaranditstheoryexclude.Itthereforeturnstoexperience,anddirectsitsattentiononthosecombinationswhichmilitaryhistorycanfurnish.Inthismanner,nodoubt,nothingmorethanalimitedtheorycanbeobtained,whichonlysuitscircumstancessuchasarepresentedinhistory.Butthisincompletenessisunavoidable,becauseinanycasetheorymusteitherhavededucedfrom,orhavecomparedwith,historywhatitadvanceswithrespecttothings.Besides,thisincompletenessineverycaseismoretheoreticalthanreal.

　　Onegreatadvantageofthismethodisthattheorycannotloseitselfinabstrusedisquisitions,subtleties,andchimeras,butmustalwaysremainpractical.

　　38.HOWFARTHEANALYSISOFTHEMEANSSHOULDBECARRIED

　　Anotherquestionis,Howfarshouldtheorygoinitsanalysisofthemeans?Evidentlyonlysofarastheelementsinaseparateformpresentthemselvesforconsiderationinpractice.Therangeandeffectofdifferentweaponsisveryimportanttotactics;theirconstruction,althoughtheseeffectsresultfromit,isamatterofindifference;fortheconductofWarisnotmakingpowderandcannonoutofagivenquantityofcharcoal,sulphur,andsaltpetre,ofcopperandtin:thegivenquantitiesfortheconductofWararearmsinafinishedstateandtheireffects.Strategymakesuseofmapswithouttroublingitselfabouttriangulations;itdoesnotinquirehowthecountryissubdividedintodepartmentsandprovinces,andhowthepeopleareeducatedandgoverned,inordertoattainthebestmilitaryresults;butittakesthingsasitfindstheminthecommunityofEuropeanStates,andobserveswhereverydifferentconditionshaveanotableinfluenceonWar.

　　39.GREATSIMPLIFICATIONOFTHEKNOWLEDGEREQUIRED

　　Thatinthismannerthenumberofsubjectsfortheoryismuchsimplified,andtheknowledgerequisitefortheconductofWarmuchreduced,iseasytoperceive.TheverygreatmassofknowledgeandappliancesofskillwhichministertotheactionofWaringeneral,andwhicharenecessarybeforeanarmyfullyequippedcantakethefield,uniteinafewgreatresultsbeforetheyareabletoreach,inactualWar,thefinalgoaloftheiractivity;justasthestreamsofacountryunitethemselvesinriversbeforetheyfallintothesea.OnlythoseactivitiesemptyingthemselvesdirectlyintotheseaofWarhavetobestudiedbyhimwhoistoconductitsoperations.

　　40.THISEXPLAINSTHERAPIDGROWTHOFGREATGENERALS,ANDWHYAGENERALISNOTAMANOFLEARNING

　　Thisresultofourconsiderationsisinfactsonecessary,anyotherwouldhavemadeusdistrustfuloftheiraccuracy.OnlythusisexplainedhowsooftenmenhavemadetheirappearancewithgreatsuccessinWar,andindeedinthehigherrankseveninsupremeCommand,whosepursuitshadbeenpreviouslyofatotallydifferentnature;indeedhow,asarule,themostdistinguishedGeneralshaveneverrisenfromtheverylearnedorreallyeruditeclassofofficers,buthavebeenmostlymenwho,fromthecircumstancesoftheirposition,couldnothaveattainedtoanygreatamountofknowledge.OnthataccountthosewhohaveconsidereditnecessaryorevenbeneficialtocommencetheeducationofafutureGeneralbyinstructioninalldetailshavealwaysbeenridiculedasabsurdpedants.Itwouldbeeasytoshowtheinjurioustendencyofsuchacourse,becausethehumanmindistrainedbytheknowledgeimpartedtoitandthedirectiongiventoitsideas.Onlywhatisgreatcanmakeitgreat;thelittlecanonlymakeitlittle,iftheminditselfdoesnotrejectitassomethingrepugnant.

　　41.FORMERCONTRADICTIONS

　　BecausethissimplicityofknowledgerequisiteinWarwasnotattendedto,butthatknowledgewasalwaysjumbledupwiththewholeimpedimentaofsubordinatesciencesandarts,thereforethepalpableoppositiontotheeventsofreallifewhichresultedcouldnotbesolvedotherwisethanbyascribingitalltogenius,whichrequiresnotheoryandforwhichnotheorycouldbeprescribed.

　　42.ONTHISACCOUNTALLUSEOFKNOWLEDGEWASDENIED,ANDEVERYTHINGASCRIBEDTONATURALTALENTS

　　Peoplewithwhomcommonsensehadtheupperhandfeltsensibleoftheimmensedistanceremainingtobefilledupbetweenageniusofthehighestorderandalearnedpedant;andtheybecameinamannerfree-thinkers,rejectedallbeliefintheory,andaffirmedtheconductofWartobeanaturalfunctionofman,whichheperformsmoreorlesswellaccordingashehas

　　oughtwithhimintotheworldmoreorlesstalentinthatdirection.Itcannotbedeniedthatthesewerenearertothetruththanthosewhoplacedavalueonfalseknowledge:atthesametimeitmayeasilybeseenthatsuchaviewisitselfbutanexaggeration.Noactivityofthehumanunderstandingispossiblewithoutacertainstockofideas;buttheseare,forthegreaterpartatleast,notinnatebutacquired,andconstitutehisknowledge.Theonlyquestionthereforeis,ofwhatkindshouldtheseideasbe;andwethinkwehaveanswereditifwesaythattheyshouldbedirectedonthosethingswhichmanhasdirectlytodealwithinWar.

　　43.THEKNOWLEDGEMUSTBEMADESUITABLETOTHEPOSITION

　　Insidethisfielditselfofmilitaryactivity,theknowledgerequiredmustbedifferentaccordingtothestationoftheCommander.Itwillbedirectedonsmallerandmorecircumscribedobjectsifheholdsaninferior,upongreaterandmorecomprehensiveonesifheholdsahighersituation.ThereareFieldMarshalswhowouldnothaveshoneattheheadofacavalryregiment,andviceversa.

　　44.THEKNOWLEDGEINWARISVERYSIMPLE,BUTNOT,ATTHESAMETIME,VERYEASY

　　ButalthoughtheknowledgeinWarissimple,thatistosaydirectedtosofewsubjects,andtakingupthoseonlyintheirfinalresults,theartofexecutionisnot,onthataccount,easy.OfthedifficultiestowhichactivityinWarissubjectgenerally,wehavealreadyspokeninthefirstbook;wehereomitthosethingswhichcanonlybeovercomebycourage,andmaintainalsothattheactivityofmind,isonlysimple,andeasyininferiorstations,butincreasesindifficultywithincreaseofrank,andinthehighestposition,inthatofCommander-in-Chief,istobereckonedamongthemostdifficultwhichthereisforthehumanmind.

　　45.OFTHENATUREOFTHISKNOWLEDGE

　　TheCommanderofanArmyneitherrequirestobealearnedexplorerofhistorynorapublicist,buthemustbewellversedinthehigheraffairsofState;hemustknow,andbeabletojudgecorrectlyoftraditionaltendencies,interestsatstake,theimmediatequestionsatissue,andthecharactersofleadingpersons;heneednotbeacloseobserverofmen,asharpdissectorofhumancharacter,buthemustknowthecharacter,thefeelings,thehabits,thepeculiarfaultsandinclinationsofthosewhomheistocommand.Heneednotunderstandanythingaboutthemakeofacarriage,ortheharnessofabatteryhorse,buthemustknowhowtocalculateexactlythemarchofacolumn,underdifferentcircumstances,accordingtothetimeitrequires.Thesearematterstheknowledgeofwhichcannotbeforcedoutbyanapparatusofscientificformulaandmachinery:theyareonlytobegainedbytheexerciseofanaccuratejudgmentintheobservationofthingsandofmen,aidedbyaspecialtalentfortheapprehensionofboth.

　　Thenecessaryknowledgeforahighpositioninmilitaryactionisthereforedistinguishedbythis,thatbyobservation,thereforebystudyandreflection,itisonlytobeattainedthroughaspecialtalentwhichasanintellectualinstinctunderstandshowtoextractfromthephenomenaoflifeonlytheessenceorspirit,asbeesdothehoneyfromtheflowers;andthatitisalsotobegainedbyexperienceoflifeaswellasbystudyandreflection.Lifewillnever

　　ingforthaNewtonoranEulerbyitsrichteachings,butitmay

　　ingforthgreatcalculatorsinWar,suchasConde'orFrederick.

　　Itisthereforenotnecessarythat,inordertovindicatetheintellectualdignityofmilitaryactivity,weshouldresorttountruthandsillypedantry.ThereneverhasbeenagreatanddistinguishedCommanderofcontractedmind,butverynumerousaretheinstancesofmenwho,afterservingwiththegreatestdistinctionininferiorpositions,remainedbelowmediocrityinthehighest,frominsufficiencyofintellectualcapacity.ThatevenamongstthoseholdingthepostofCommander-in-Chieftheremaybeadifferenceaccordingtothedegreeoftheirplenitudeofpowerisamatterofcourse.

　　46.SCIENCEMUSTBECOMEART

　　NowwehaveyettoconsideroneconditionwhichismorenecessaryfortheknowledgeoftheconductofWarthanforanyother,whichis,thatitmustpasscompletelyintothemindandalmostcompletelyceasetobesomethingobjective.Inalmostallotherartsandoccupationsoflifetheactiveagentcanmakeuseoftruthswhichhehasonlylearntonce,andinthespiritandsenseofwhichhenolongerlives,andwhichheextractsfromdustybooks.Eventruthswhichhehasinhandandusesdailymaycontinuesomethingexternaltohimself,Ifthearchitecttakesupapentosettlethestrengthofapierbyacomplicatedcalculation,thetruthfoundasaresultisnoemanationfromhisownmind.Hehadfirsttofindthedatawithlabour,andthentosubmitthesetoanoperationofthemind,theruleforwhichhedidnotdiscover,thenecessityofwhichheisperhapsatthemomentonlypartlyconsciousof,butwhichheapplies,forthemostpart,asifbymechanicaldexterity.ButitisneversoinWar.Themoralreaction,theever-changefulformofthings,makesitnecessaryforthechiefactortocarryinhimselfthewholementalapparatusofhisknowledge,thatanywhereandateverypulse-beathemaybecapableofgivingtherequisitedecisionfromhimself.Knowledgemust,bythiscompleteassimilationwithhisownmindandlife,beconvertedintorealpower.ThisisthereasonwhyeverythingseemssoeasywithmendistinguishedinWar,andwhyeverythingisascribedtonaturaltalent.Wesaynaturaltalent,inordertherebytodistinguishitfromthatwhichisformedandmaturedbyobservationandstudy.

　　WethinkthatbythesereflectionswehaveexplainedtheproblemofatheoryoftheconductofWar;andpointedoutthewaytoitssolution.

　　OfthetwofieldsintowhichwehavedividedtheconductofWar,tacticsandstrategy,thetheoryofthelattercontainsunquestionably,asbeforeobserved,thegreatestdifficulties,becausethefirstisalmostlimitedtoacircumscribedfieldofobjects,butthelatter,inthedirectionofobjectsleadingdirectlytopeace,openstoitselfanunlimitedfieldofpossibilities.SinceforthemostparttheCommander-in-Chiefhasonlytokeeptheseobjectssteadilyinview,thereforethepartofstrategyinwhichhemovesisalsothatwhichisparticularlysubjecttothisdifficulty.

　　Theory,therefore,especiallywhereitcomprehendsthehighestservices,willstopmuchsoonerinstrategythanintacticsatthesimpleconsiderationofthings,andcontentitselftoassisttheCommandertothatinsightintothingswhich,blendedwithhiswholethought,makeshiscourseeasierandsurer,neverforceshimintooppositionwithhimselfinordertoobeyanobjectivetruth.

m.χＩùmЬ.ＣǒＭ 蓝星，夏国。

　　肿瘤科病房，弥漫着医院独有的消毒水味道。病房是单人间，设施俱全，温馨舒适。

　

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　可对于孑然一身的路遥来讲，却是无人问津的等死之地。

　　他是癌症晚期，靠着意志力撑到现在，但也只是多受几天罪罢了。

　　此刻，路遥躺在病床上，怔怔望着床头柜上的水杯，想喝口水。

　　可他拼尽全力却无法让身体离开病床。剧痛和衰弱，让这原本无比简单的事情成了奢望。

　　这时，一道幸灾乐祸的声音响起：“表哥~你真是狼狈呢。连喝口水都得指望别人施舍。”

　　一位英俊的年轻男子悠闲坐在病床前，翘着二郎腿，眼睛笑成一道缝。

　　“你求求我，我给你喝口水如何？”

　　路遥面无表情，一言不发。自从失去了自理能力，一帮亲戚的嘴脸已经见多了，不差这一个。

　　男子起身，将水杯拿在手里递过来，“表哥别生气，我开玩笑的，你对我这么好，喂你口水还是能办到的。”

　　说完话，他将水杯里的水，缓缓倒在路遥苍白消瘦的脸上。

　　被呛到，路遥无力的咳嗽几声，好在少量的水流过嗓子，让他有了几丝说话的力气：

　

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　“张鑫，为什么？我从未得罪过你。你去星盟国留学，还是我资助的！”

　　张鑫将水杯放下，不紧不慢的说：“谁让你这么古板呢，只是运点感冒药罢了，又不犯法，你非得千方百计的拦着。”

　　路遥脸上闪过一丝了然之色，道：“张鑫你这垃圾，狗改不了吃屎。将感冒药运到国外提炼毒品……咳咳……”

　　张鑫理了下领带，笑道：“你别血口喷人啊，我可是国际知名企业家。这次回国，‘省招商引资局’还打电话欢迎我呢~”

　　路遥叹了口气，现在的自己什么都做不了，索性闭上眼睛不再说话，安静等待死亡的到来。

　　但张鑫却不想让眼前饱受病痛折磨、即将离世的表兄走好。他附身靠近，悄悄说道：琇書蛧

　　“表哥啊~其实呢，我这次回国主要就是见你一面，告诉你一声——你的癌，是我弄出来的~”

　　路遥陡然挣开眼，“你说什么！”

　　张鑫笑眯眯的掏出个铅盒打开，里面是件古怪的三角形饰物，仅有巴掌大小，中间是只眼睛似的图案，一看就很有年代感。

　　“眼熟吧？这是我亲手送你的，货真价实的古董。我在里面掺了点放射性物质，长期接触就会变成你现在这副鬼样子。”

　　路遥马上认出来，这是自己很喜欢的一件古物，天天摆在书桌上，时不时的把玩，没想到却是要人命的东西！

　　他伸出枯枝似的手臂，死死的抓住眼前人的胳膊！“你……”

　　“别激动~表哥，我西装很贵的。”张鑫轻松拿掉路遥的手，小心的捏起铅盒，将放射性饰物塞进他怀里。

　　“我赶飞机，得先走一步。你好好留着这个当做纪念吧，有机会再去你的坟头蹦迪~”

　　说完话，张鑫从容起身离开。临走前，还回头俏皮的眨眨眼。他原本就男生女相，此时的神态动作居然有些娇媚。

　　保镖很有眼力劲，赶紧打开病房门。同时用无线耳麦联络同事，提前发动汽车。

　　~~~~~~~~

　　路遥只能无力的瘫在床上，浑身皆是钻心剜骨般的剧痛，还有无穷悔恨、不甘。

　

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　但很快，剧痛渐渐消失，只剩麻木，路遥隐约听到过世的双亲在喊他。

　　就在路遥的身体越来越飘，即将失去意识时，胸口突然阵阵发烫，将他惊醒。

　　从怀中摸出那三角形饰物，发现这玩意变得滚烫无比，还在缓缓发光！

秀书网为你提供最快的战争论更新，BOOK II ON THE THEORY OF WAR（1）免费阅读。https://www.xiumb9.com